Scholars agree that law enforcement is one of the most stressful careers, where an officer averages 188 critical incidents throughout their career (Sutton, 2011; Cuadro, 2019; Gibson, 2020; & Heyman, Dill, & Douglas, 2018). Law enforcement officers are exposed to traumatic and critical incidents daily such as homicides, deadly vehicle collisions, sexual assaults, child crimes, and domestic violence, which accumulate and inevitably, over time, cause emotional distress, as officer resiliency decreases (Sutton, 2011; Cuadro, 2019; & Usher, Friedhoff, Cochran, & Pandya, 2013). Each police officer’s exposure and encounters with stress and trauma will differ depending on their operation, location, and level of government (Haecker, 2017). Both trauma and stress emerge from how the person/officer process the stressor or event, not solely from the event itself (Haecker, 2017). The constant exposure to stress and trauma puts law enforcement officers at risk for developing mental health and wellness problems (Gibson, 2020). These effects are not restricted to just sworn employees within policing. Civilian employees such as dispatchers and 911 operators, crime scene specialists’ and lab personnel, as well as those who redact either written reports or body-worn camera videos are often forgotten (Kaye, Javidi, Normore, & Ellis, 2020).
The word trauma comes from the Greek language, meaning to wound or pierce (Haecker, 2017). Trauma can come from a one-time event, various events experienced at once or over time, or a combination of these events, which are emotionally and physically harmful and threatening to a person. Exposure to trauma multiple times is a significant issue, as it can lead to serious trauma-related symptoms. Trauma can have many negative long-lasting effects and can affect an individual’s emotional, physical, spiritual, or social wellbeing (Gibson, 2020). Police officers may not show signs of trauma after a critical incident, but they may still develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or develop symptoms of trauma exposure at a later time from the critical incident. Officers experience trauma almost daily, which makes them susceptible to being retraumatized by another traumatic event (Gibson, 2020). Police officers can also experience triggers, also known as trauma reminders, associated with their experience. Triggers can include sensory inputs like smells and sounds, responding or driving by a specific location, and interactions with other people (Gibson, 2020).
According to Haecker (2017), “law enforcement officers…are among the most vulnerable to stress and trauma based on (a) their continuous exposure to violent encounters, (b) the atrocities committed by fellow humans, and (c) being forced to make split-second life and death decisions” (p. 1). A study was conducted of 400 police officers, and 10% of those surveyed reported seriously injuring or killing someone during their first three years of their career (Heyman et al., 2018). Law enforcement officers often encounter unwinnable situations that afterwards may result in, other officers, and/or their families being vilified over. These situations include being involved in a shooting or the taking of a life (Haecker, 2017). When discussing officer-involved shootings, Haecker (2017) quoted Kirschman:
there is little satisfaction in killing or wounding someone. Afterward, officers can oscillate between remorse for actions not taken and guilt for acts committed. Praise from coworkers can wound more than it heals. Studies since the terror attacks on 9/11 have highlighted that forcing the victim to retell the story retraumatized them, thereby deepening the impact of the trauma. (p. 48)
After a critical incident such as an officer-involved shooting, police officers experience shock and denial, distortion of the incident, flashbacks, emotional numbing, isolation, a heightened sense of danger, sleep difficulties, depression, physical symptoms, and even strained personal relationships (Haecker, 2017).
Not only do law enforcement officers witness trauma, but they also endure organizational stressors that cause higher levels of stress than the occupational stressors. Occupational stress includes not enough manpower, poor leadership, rotating shifts and hours, insufficient or sub-standard quality equipment, and being assigned to disagreeable duties. These stressors associate with depression more than critical incidents (Sutton, 2011; Tessieri-Hochuli, 2018; & Gibson, 2020). Police officers also develop stress in areas outside of work indirectly related to their job. These include their interpersonal relationships, family dynamics, media coverage, and national public opinion (Port, 2016).
Constant exposure to death, destruction, and trauma create a breeding ground for mental health problems and emotional coping skills. These problems and coping skills include depression, PTSD, suicidality or suicide, anger management concerns, panic attacks, increased violence, emotional suppression, substance abuse, avoidance, and divorce (Port, 2016; Gibson, 2020; Price, 2017, & Heyman et al., 2018). Coworkers may think an officer is so resilient because he is at work every day and works hard. Still, they do not know he/she can’t sleep without alcohol, or he/she may be struggling with marital problems or suicidality. They do not recognize the cause of those problems may lie at work and can be addressed with psychological support (Usher et al., 2013).